There is another advantage，worthy our observation，that belongs to the study of history；and that I shall mention here，not only because of the importance of it，but because it leads me immediately to speak of the nature of the improvement we ought to have in our view，and of the method in which it seems to me that this improvement ought to be pursued：two particulars from which your lordship may think perhaps that I digress too long.The advantage I mean consists in this，that the examples which history presents to us，both of men and of events，are generally complete.the whole example is before us，and consequently the whole lesson，or sometimes the various lessons，which philosophy proposes to teach us by this example.For first，as to men；we see them at their whole length in history，and we see them generally there through a medium less partial at least than that of experience：for I imagine that a whig or a tory，whilst those parties subsisted，would have condemned in Saturninus the spirit of faction which he applauded in his own tribunes，and would have applauded in Drusus the spirit of moderation which he despised in those of the contrary party，and which he suspected and hated in those of his own party.The villain who has imposed on mankind by his power or cunning，and whom experience could not unmask for a time，is unmasked at length：and the honest man，who has been misunderstood or defamed，is justified before his story ends.Or if this does not happen，if the villain dies with his mask on，in the midst of applause，and honor，and wealth，and power，and if the honest man dies under the same load of calumny and disgrace under which he lived，driven perhaps into exile，and exposed to want；yet we see historical justice executed，the name of one branded with infamy，and that of the other celebrated with panegyric to succeeding ages."Praecipuum munus annalium reor，ne virtutes sileantur；utque pravis dictis factisque ex posteritate et infamia metus sit."Thus，according to Tacitus，and according to truth，from which his judgments seldom deviate，the principal duty of history is to erect a tribunal，like that among the Egyptians，mentioned by Diodorus Siculus，where men and princes themselves were tried，and condemned or acquitted，after their deaths；where those who had not been punished for their crimes，and those who had not been honored for their virtues，received a just retribution.The sentence is pronounced in one case，as it was in the other，too late to correct or recompense；but it is pronounced in time to render these examples of general instruction to mankind.Thus Cicero，that I may quote one instance out of thousands，and that I may do justice to the general character of that great man，whose particular failing I have censured so freely.Cicero，I say，was abandoned by Octavius，and massacred by Antony.But let any man read this fragment of Aurelius Fuscus，and choose which he would wish to have been，the orator，or the triumvir？"Quoad humanum genus incolume manserit，quamdiu usus literis，honor summae eloquentiae pretium erit，quamdiu rerum natura aut fortuna steterit，aut memoria duraverit，admirabile posteris vigebis ingenium，et uno prous seculo，proscribes Antonium omnibus."Thus again，as to events that stand recorded in history；we see them all，we see them as they followed one another，or as they produced one another，causes or effects，immediate or remote.We are cast back，as it were，into former ages：we live with the men who lived before us，and we inhabit countries that we never saw.Place is enlarged，and time prolonged，in this manner；so that the man who applies himself early to the study of history，may acquire in a few years，and before he sets his foot abroad in the world，not only a more extended knowledge of mankind，but the experience of more centuries than any of the patriarchs saw.The events we are witnesses of，in the course of the longest life，appear to us very often original，unprepared，single，and unrelative，if I may use such an expression for want of a better English；in French I would say isolés：they appear such very often，are called accidents，and looked on as the effects of chance；a word，by the way，which is in constant use，and has frequently no determinate meaning.We get over the present difficulty，we improve the momentary advantage，as well as we can，and we look no farther.Experience can carry us no farther；for experience can go a very little way back in discovering causes：and effects are not the objects of experience till they happen.From hence many errors in judgment，and by consequence in conduct，necessarily arise.And here too lies the difference we are speaking of between history and experience.The advantage on the side of the former is double.In ancient history，as we have said already，the examples are complete，which are incomplete in the course of experience.
The beginning，the progression，and the end appear，not of particular reigns，much less of particular enterprises，or systems of policy alone，but of governments，of nations，of empires，and of all the various systems that have succeeded one another in the course of their duration.In modern history，the examples may be，and sometimes are，incomplete；but they have this advantage when they are so，that they serve to render complete the examples of our own time.
Experience is doubly defective；we are born too late to see the beginning，and we die too soon to see the end of many things.History supplies both these defects.Modern history shows the causes，when experience presents the effects alone：and ancient history enables us to guess at the effects，when experience presents the causes alone.Let me explain my meaning by two examples of these kinds；one past，the other actually present.
